Writing Clearly And Concisely

# The Elements of Style (1918)

_Public domain text by William Strunk Jr._

## Contents

- [I. Introductory](#i-introductory)
- [II. Elementary Rules Of Usage](#ii-elementary-rules-of-usage)
  - [Rule 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.](#rule-1-form-the-possessive-singular-of-nouns-by-adding-s)
  - [Rule 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.](#rule-2-in-a-series-of-three-or-more-terms-with-a-single-conjunction-use-a-comma-after-each-term-except-the-last)
  - [Rule 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.](#rule-3-enclose-parenthetic-expressions-between-commas)
  - [Rule 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause.](#rule-4-place-a-comma-before-a-conjunction-introducing-a-co-ordinate-clause)
  - [Rule 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.](#rule-5-do-not-join-independent-clauses-by-a-comma)
  - [Rule 6. Do not break sentences in two.](#rule-6-do-not-break-sentences-in-two)
  - [Rule 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.](#rule-7-a-participial-phrase-at-the-beginning-of-a-sentence-must-refer-to-the-grammatical-subject)
- [III. Elementary Principles Of Composition](#iii-elementary-principles-of-composition)
  - [Rule 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.](#rule-8-make-the-paragraph-the-unit-of-composition-one-paragraph-to-each-topic)
  - [Rule 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning.](#rule-9-as-a-rule-begin-each-paragraph-with-a-topic-sentence-end-it-in-conformity-with-the-beginning)
  - [Rule 10. Use the active voice.](#rule-10-use-the-active-voice)
  - [Rule 11. Put statements in positive form.](#rule-11-put-statements-in-positive-form)
  - [Rule 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.](#rule-12-use-definite-specific-concrete-language)
  - [Rule 13. Omit needless words.](#rule-13-omit-needless-words)
  - [Rule 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences](#rule-14-avoid-a-succession-of-loose-sentences)
  - [Rule 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.](#rule-15-express-co-ordinate-ideas-in-similar-form)
  - [Rule 16. Keep related words together.](#rule-16-keep-related-words-together)
  - [Rule 17. In summaries, keep to one tense.](#rule-17-in-summaries-keep-to-one-tense)
  - [Rule 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.](#rule-18-place-the-emphatic-words-of-a-sentence-at-the-end)
- [V. Words And Expressions Commonly Misused](#v-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused)

## I. Introductory

This handbook summarizes the essentials of plain English style. It focuses on the rules of usage and principles of composition most often broken, offering a compact alternative to exhaustive manuals. Master the guidance here, then look to the best authors for finer points of style.

## II. Elementary Rules Of Usage

### Rule 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.

Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,

Charles's friend

Burns's poems

the witch's malice

This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.

Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names in *-es* and *-is*, the possessive *Jesus'*, and such forms as *for conscience' sake*, *for righteousness' sake*. But such forms as *Achilles' heel*, *Moses' laws*, *Isis' temple* are commonly replaced by

the heel of Achilles

the laws of Moses

the temple of Isis

The pronominal possessives *hers*, *its*, *theirs*, *yours*, and *oneself* have no apostrophe.

### Rule 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.

Thus write,

red, white, and blue

gold, silver, or copper

He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.

This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.